Memory

MEMORY

Memory is the cognitive systems for storing encoding and retrieving message. Memory is the encoding ,storage and retrieval of what was learned earlier .It is cognitive process

Cognition refers to the process through which information coming from the senses is transformed elaborated and recovered and used

Cognitive process are thus mental process involved in knowing about the world.

There are three memory processes:
1. Encoding process- Process of receiving sensory Input and transforming it into a form or code which can be stored.

2.Coding Process -Process of putting the coded information into memory

3.Retrieval process-Process of gaining access to stored coded information when it is needed

Why memory can be inaccurate?

1.Encoding maybe faulty due to emotion and distress
2.Important coded information may not be well fixed memory or     maybe distorted
3.Retrieval of information can be biased
4.Since all 3 memory processes are related all three memory process may be faulty

Multi store model theory by Atkinson and shiffrin

Memory starts with sensory input from the environment , these input are held for several seconds in the  sensory register( less than one second for vision and few seconds for hearing)

Information recognised in sensory register is passed on to short term memory where it is held for about 20 to 30 seconds

Most of the information in the short term memory are lost .Some information of short term memory is processed by being rehearsed.
Rehearsal includes having attention focused to it.

Rehearsal is of two types:

1.Maintenance rehearsal-process of repeating a piece of information
2.Elaborative rehearsal -Information here are subjected to elaborative rehearsal or deep processing and is transferred to long term memory

A. Sensory register (sensory memory):

Visual memory information are held here for about 1 second

Auditory memory information about 4 to 5 seconds 

Visual sensory holds about 11 to 16 items of information.
For vision the sensory information is in the form of a faint image called iconic image which is copy of visual input.

B. Short term memory

        

It holds information up to 30 seconds

The length of retention depends upon number of factors:

Recall depends on where an item is in a series of item called serial position effect.

Better recall at beginning of the list called primacy effect It is because it had the time to enter the long term memory.

Better recall at the end of the list is called recency effect it is because they are still in the short term memory.

Short term memory has a limited storage capacity which is estimated to be about seven items plus or minus 2 (Miller)

This capacity can be increased by process known as chunking

Several items can be combined to form chunks

Most of the information in short term memory is lost by being displaced by incoming information
Some of the information is not lost but passed into long term memory through rehearsal.

Rehearsal this process consists of keeping items of information at the centre of attention by repeating
However
Just by going over and repeating what is  to be remembered called maintenance rehearsal is not enough

Elaborative rehearsal that includes giving the material organisation and meaning as it is rehearsed is found to be more effective in transforming the materials to long-term memory
It is an active rehearsal process
It is related to semantic memory

C. Long term memory 

It's time span of information storage cannot be stated and storage capacity has no limit.
Theorists believe there is no true forgetting so when we seem to forget it is because:

1. we have trouble retrieving .Information is there but we cannot get access to it.

2. Information is not organised

3.we are not searching it at the right path of the store house in                             the brain

3.Because of confusion and interference by new information.

 Two long term stores are semantic and episodic memory

Long term memory encoding

Encoding for LTM require special attention or strategies:

1.organisations this strategy require things to organise or arrange the input so the that it fits with existing long term memory categories and group in logical manner
individual do their own organisational and coding of incoming information called subjective encoding

2. Imagery words for which images are easily formed are called concrete imagery while those that evoke very little visual imagery is termed as abstract imagery.

3.Constructive process- During encoding information on modified to be made simpler or distorted this is called constructive process

Gist - It is an important constructive process so that only the outline of the information is stored

Inferences - Use of inferences are also common we tend to remember what was inferred at the time of encoding and storage

Level Of Processing Theory by Craik and Lockhart

According to level of processing Idea , Incoming information can be worked on at different levels of analysis.
The deeper the analysis goes the better the memory

First level perception gives us immediate Awareness of the environment

Second level structural level features of the input information and analysed

Third Level, most deepest level, meaning level. here, meaning of the input is analysed, this gives the best memory.

Working memory 

Initially this was used interchangeably with short term memory but short term memory refers to temporary storage of information while working memory involves both storage and processing of information .
active processing of information also occurs here that is why it is referred to as working memory.

Theory of working memory by Baddeley and hitch

According to this theory working memory consists of three different part :
1. Phonological loop - Consisting of phonological store (speech perception) and articulatory control process (speech production)

2. Visual spatial sketchpad - processes visual and spatial information.

3.Central executive - This supervisors and coordinates the other two components

Explicit memory
Memory for factual information is termed as explicit or declarative memory because we can report it verbally.

It is of two types:

1.Semantic memory- Holds information of general nature information we do not remember acquiring at a specific time example memory of meaning of words language etcetera

2.Episodic memory - Holds information we acquire at a specific time allows to remember our experiences

Factors affecting semantic memory's retention:

1.Spacing of practice - The more we practice the more we remember but after sometime memory improvement slows down for this spacing distribution of practice is also important

2.Level of processing - Deeper the level of processing more easy to retain that memory.

Factors affecting episodic memory’s retention:

1.Retrieval cues - Stimuli that are associated with the information stored in the memory can help bring the information to mind at times when it can't be recalled spontaneously the more retrieval cues the more easy retention

2.Context-dependent memory-Materials learned in one context or environment is easier to remember in the similar context or environment than in a very different context

3.State dependent memory - Our internal States can also sometimes serves to aid the memory. it is often more easier to recall information stored in long term memory when our internal state is similar to which existed when the information was first entered in our brain

Encoding specificity principle - Retrieval of information is more successful to the extent that retrieval cues match the cues the learner  used during the study phase , i.e. the most similar cues the more memory is facilitated (Tulving , Thompson)

Implicit memory

Implicit memory or procedural memory – Memory system that have information we cannot readily express. We often know how to perform some action but cannot describe this knowledge to others.

This can be easily studied by priming affect having seen an object or hearing a stimulus once may facilitating recognising it on a later occasion and even if we are unaware of it.

               Forgetting

The earliest view of forgetting was that information entered into long-term memory fades or decay with with the passage of time The amount of forgetting is not simply a function of how much time has elapsed rather what has happened during the crucial.

A. Forgetting as a result of interference

Interference between item of information stored in memory such interference can take two different forms:

1.Retroactive interference - information currently being learned interface with information already present in the memory

2. Proactive interference - Previously learned information present in long-term memory interface with information you are learning at present.

Interference play a key role in forgetting long term memory

When we attempt to remember information in memory we may recall the items we seek but at the same time we generate inhibition of other items that we do not try to remember, as a result this other items become more difficult to remember in the future.

In short, act of retrieval itself can cause forgetting , not the information you recall ,but ,of the other related information this phenomena is known as Retrieval inhibition

Interference may play a role ,especially with respect to relatively meaningless material but other Complex processes such as inhibited generated by retrieval itself may also contribute to our inability to recall information we would like to remember

Information entered into memory overtime can be altered andreduce is accuracy and change its meaning.

This falls under two major headings

A.Memory distortion

B.Memory construction

A.Memory distortion -Memory distortion is mainly due

1.Schemas

2.Motives

3.Source monitoring

4.Reality monitoring

1. Schemas – These are structures representing individuals’ knowledge and assumption about aspects of the world .

Schemas are developed through experience and act something like mental scaffolds providing us with basic frameworks for processing new information and relating it to existing knowledge. Once schemas are formed the exit strong effects on the way information is encoded stored and later retrieved.

These effects in turn can lead to important distortions is memory but such effects are most apparent with respect to encoding.

2. Motive - We often distort our memories in order to bring them in line with whatever goals we are currently seeking

3.Source monitoring -  The process of identifying the origin of specific memories .we remember information stored in memory but we attribute it to the wrong source

Error in source monitoring me play a role in eyewitness testimony

4.Reality monitoring - The process of deciding whether memory system from external sources or from our internal sources .
Errors with respect to Reality monitoring may have important implications for personal health

B.Memory construction - People can recall events that did not actually occur or experience they never actually had .False memories are both persistent and convincing people strongly believe that they are real

We actually eliminate from our consciousness memories or experience we find threatening, in other words we do engage in repression. Freud contended the repressed memories are pushed into unconscious mind where they remain causing many psychological problems .

Autobiographical memory-Memories for information of about events in our own life

Infantile Amnesia are our supposed inability to remember experiences during the first 2 or 3 years of life

One possibility is that autobiographical memory is absent in early life because a brain structure necessary for such memory and not developed ,even our language system are not matured enough.


Flashbulb memories- Vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an emotional provoking event they are termed as flashbulb memory .It is because we they seem to be preserved in autobiographical memory in considerable detail almost like a photograph

Flashbulb memory seem to be specially vivid are strong because they are triggered by events that are surprising, distinctive and important to the people involved.


Effects of mood on memory:

It is often easier to recall information stored in long-term memory when our internal state is similar to that which existed when the information was first entered into our memory

Mood dependent memory - Memory can be enhanced when our mood during retrieval is similar to that when we first encoded some information this enhanced recall is known as mood dependent memory

Mood congruence effect - We notice or remember information that is congruent with our current mood this is known as mood congruence effect.

In mood dependent memory mood serve as a retrieval cues helping us remember information required when we were in that mood before but this information may or may not be related to our current mode

In mood congruence effect we tend to remember information congruent with our present mode

Amnesia

Two major types of Amnesia exist:

Retrograde Amnesia -memory of events prior to Amnesia introducing events is impaired third person suffering from such Amnesia may be unable to remember events from specific periods of their life

Anterograde Amnesia in contrast individual cannot remember events that occur after the Amnesia introducing event